Context-free grammars (CFGs) are the de-facto formalism for declaratively describing concrete syntax for programming languages and generating parsers. One of the major challenges in defining a desired syntax is ruling out all possible ambiguities in the CFG productions that determine scoping rules as well as operator precedence and associativity. Practical tools for parser generation typically apply ad-hoc approaches for resolving such ambiguities, which might result in a parser’s behaviour that contradicts the intents of the language designer. In this work, we present a user-friendly approach to soundly repair grammars with ambiguities, which is inspired by the programming by example line of research in automated program synthesis. At the heart of our approach is the interpretation of both the initial CFG and additional examples that define the desired restrictions in precedence and associativity, as tree automata (TAs). The technical novelties of our approach are (1) a new TA learning algorithm that constructs an automaton based on the original grammar and examples that encode the user’s preferred ways of resolving ambiguities all in a single TA, and (2) an efficient algorithm for TA intersection that utilises reachability analysis and optimizations that significantly reduce the size of the resulting automaton, which results in idiomatic CFGs amenable to parser generators. We have proven the soundness of the algorithms, and implemented our approach in a tool called Greta, demonstrating its effectiveness on a series of case studies.

@article{paperbot3798,
  title = {Grammar Repair with Examples and Tree Automata},
  author = {Yunjeong Lee and Gokul Rajiv and Ilya Sergey},
  journal = {Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages},
  volume = {10},
  number = {OOPSLA1},
  year = {2026},
  doi = {10.1145/3798242}
}